How indigenous perspectives on forests can guide us in tackling the climate and biodiversity crises

There is a reason why Indigenous cultures around the world view trees as kin, meaning they are cared for and protected like family. ¹ Forests underpin life on Earth: they mitigate climate change by absorbing CO₂ from the atmosphere, while also hosting more than half of all known plant and animal species. ²

As a result, trees offer a highly cost-effective solution to the climate and biodiversity crises we’re facing. ² With global temperatures likely to exceed 1.5°C within the next decade and wildlife populations having declined by 73% between 1970 and 2020, we urgently need the protection that trees can provide. ³, ⁴

Yet we continue cutting forests down to meet our never-ending demand for land. To be exact, 10.9 million hectares of forest are lost each year - an area comparable to the size of Iceland. ⁵

Where is deforestation happening, what is driving it, and what can we do to stop it?

Deforestation: let’s get it straight

Before exploring deforestation further, it's important to clarify what the term actually means. Across scientific literature, online sources, and official reports, definitions vary. While there is no single ‘correct’ version, the widely accepted definition from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) describes deforestation as “the conversion of forest to other land use, whether human-induced or not” and is no longer expected to naturally regenerate. ⁶

We’re faced with a twin crisis

With deforestation defined, it’s time to see where we stand on global change. The planetary boundaries framework ⁷, developed in 2009, identifies nine Earth system processes essential for a stable and resilient planet, providing a clear, science-backed picture of global change.

Within this framework, climate change and biosphere integrity are core boundaries. Crossing either one pushes our planet toward a more unpredictable and unsafe state. ⁷ Because these two crises are tightly linked, it’s also referred to as the twin crisis. ⁸

I prefer to get the bad news out of the way so we can work towards solutions. According to the latest update of the planetary boundaries framework in 2025, we have crossed seven out of nine boundaries. Both climate change and biosphere integrity have entered the high-risk zone. ⁹

We’ve crossed seven out of nine planetary boundaries

Note. Adapted from Planetary health check 2025: A scientific assessment of the state of the planet, by Sakschewski et al., 2025, Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research https://doi.org/10.48485/pik.2025.017

How forest loss accelerates the twin crisis

Now, let’s bring trees back into the picture. Since the refinement of the planetary boundary framework in 2015, global forest cover is the key control variable for the land-system change boundary, reflecting the growing understanding of how strongly forests influence different Earth system processes. ¹⁰

The loss of forest directly influences climate change and biosphere integrity. When forests are cleared, we not only lose our planet’s most important carbon capture system, but carbon also gets released back into the atmosphere, turning forests into carbon emitters rather than absorbers. ⁵ At the same time, forest loss destroys the habitats that countless species and plants depend on. ⁸

Our eyes should be on tropical forests

Now that we understand the gravity of deforestation, the next question is where it’s happening and how severe it is. Forest loss occurs across all major climatic zones: boreal, temperate, subtropical, and tropical. ⁵ The vast majority, about 88%, of deforestation between 1990 and 2025 occurred in the tropics. ⁵ While deforestation has decreased in the tropics and subtropics, it has risen slightly in temperate and boreal regions.

Tropical forests not only lose the largest amount of trees but also host the highest levels of biodiversity. ¹² Clearing even small patches of tropical forests can lead to local extinctions and weakened ecosystem resilience. ¹¹, ¹² On top of that, tropical forests are massive carbon sinks, storing more carbon per unit area than most other forests. ¹³ The takeaway is clear: our eyes should be on tropical deforestation.

88% of deforestation in the last 3.5 decades happened in the tropics

Note. Adapted from Global Forest Resources Assessment 2025, by FAO, 2025, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

South America and Africa are deforestation hotspots

Looking closer at where deforestation occurs, South America tops the list, having lost about 4.22 million hectares each year between 2015 and 2025. Africa follows, with roughly 3.45 million hectares, and Asia sees around 2 million hectares disappear each year. ⁵

Even though these numbers are slightly lower than in past decades, the rates of tropical deforestation remain alarmingly high. Europe, by comparison, loses much less forest, around 145,000 hectares per year, with only a modest decline over time. ¹⁴

Although the slowdown in deforestation is a positive development, the broader trend is still deeply concerning. Over the past 10,000 years, the world has lost about one-third of its forests, and half of that loss has occurred in just the last century. ¹⁴

Deforestation is slowing, but the bigger picture remains troubling

Note. Adapted from Global Forest Resources Assessment 2025, by FAO, 2025, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

Beef: the leading force behind tropical deforestation

Understanding the reasons behind deforestation is essential to finding solutions. Beef production is the single largest driver of tropical deforestation, accounting for 41% of forest loss. ¹⁵

Palm oil, soy, and other oilseeds contribute another 18%. An important detail is that roughly 77% of global soy is used as livestock feed rather than for direct human consumption. ¹⁵ This means that much of the soy-driven deforestation is linked to meat production.

Other products, such as timber, paper, cereals, vegetables, rice, sugar, and plant-based fibers, also contribute to forest loss, but to a much smaller extent.

The evidence couldn't be clearer: the meat industry is the primary driver of tropical deforestation, and transforming it could significantly reduce forest loss. ¹⁶

Beef is the primary driver of tropical deforestation

Note. Adapted from Ritchie, H. (2021). Drivers of deforestation. Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/drivers-of-deforestation

Tackling deforestation at its roots

Even though we know why deforestation is happening, where it's occurring, and how damaging the impacts are, tackling it is far from straightforward. It requires action across multiple levels, from structural change to individual behavior, alongside a shift in how we value forests. ², ¹¹

First, at a structural level, we need to do a much better job of protecting forests. One of the most effective ways to achieve this is by supporting Indigenous communities in managing their lands - areas they have lived on and cared for for generations. ⁵, ¹²

Traditional Indigenous land management is proven to be effective in combating deforestation, biodiversity loss, and climate change, with 28% of the world’s land under Indigenous stewardship remaining ecologically intact. ¹⁷, ⁵ For this approach to succeed, Indigenous rights and knowledge must be fully respected and integrated into forest protection strategies. ¹⁸

At the individual level, the most impactful action we can take is changing our diet by reducing meat consumption, especially beef, and shifting toward a more plant-based diet.¹⁶

Finally, we need a shift in mindset. We must view forests as more than just land and recognize their role in keeping our planet stable and habitable, just as Indigenous cultures have done for generations. ¹, ²

Is it too late to save our trees - and ourselves?

While the slowdown in deforestation is encouraging, we have to be realistic: we’re still losing an area of forest the size of Iceland each year, permanently. The most concerning part is that the highest rates of deforestation occur in tropical forests. ⁵, ¹¹ These forests are crucial carbon sinks ¹³, home to incredible biodiversity ⁸, and the lands of many Indigenous communities ¹⁷, ¹⁸. Losing them affects climate, ecosystems, and human livelihoods all at once.

But here’s the hopeful part. Forests themselves hold the key to solving these crises, since they are one of the most effective and cost-efficient tools we have for mitigating climate change and preserving biodiversity. ², ⁹ We also know that beef production is a key driver, meaning we can make a significant impact by changing our diet. ¹⁵, ¹⁶

Trees are kin

Climate change and biodiversity loss, two interconnected planetary boundaries we've long surpassed, are pushing the Earth toward greater instability, making the planet less habitable for us. ⁷, ⁹ Deforestation intensifies both crises, as forests are crucial carbon sinks and provide habitats for over half of the world’s plant and animal species. ¹⁹, ¹³

Although global deforestation rates have fallen in the last decade, we still lose 10.9 million hectares of forest each year. The vast majority, about 88% between 1990 and 2025, is being lost in the tropics, with South America and Africa as the primary hotspots. ⁵, ¹⁴ With 41% of tropical forests cleared for beef production, animal agriculture is without a doubt the largest driver of deforestation. ¹⁵

With data clearly identifying key deforestation drivers and hotspots, we can come up with solutions that address the root causes. While there are many potential solutions, it’s crucial that they operate on multiple levels. On a structural level, protecting forests through Indigenous land management can have a significant impact. ¹⁷ On a personal level, shifting diets away from meat is essential. ¹⁶ Lastly, on a mindset level, respecting trees as kin, as Indigenous cultures have done for generations, can guide us toward a more sustainable future. ¹

References

1. Common Ground. (2022, October 31). Sacred trees. https://www.commonground.org.au/article/sacred-trees

2. FAO. (2024). The state of the world’s forests 2024: Forest-sector innovations towards a more sustainable future. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://doi.org/10.4060/cd1211en

3. United Nations Environment Programme. (2025). Emissions Gap Report 2025: Off target - Continued collective inaction puts global temperature goal at risk (A. Olhoff, W. Lamb, T. Kuramochi, J. Rogelj, M. den Elzen, J. Christensen, T. Fransen, M. Pathak, & D. Tong, Eds.). UNEP. https://doi.org/10.59117/20.500.11822/48854

4. WWF. (2024). Living Planet Report 2024: A system in peril. WWF International. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13891542

5. FAO. (2025). Global Forest Resources Assessment 2025. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://doi.org/10.4060/cd6709en

6. FAO. (2023). Terms and definitions: FRA 2025 (Forest Resources Assessment Working Paper No. 194). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://openknowledge.fao.org

7. Rockström, J., Steffen, W., Noone, K., Persson, Å., Chapin, F. S., Lambin, E., Lenton, T. M., Scheffer, M., Folke, C., Schellnhuber, H. J., Nykvist, B., de Wit, C. A., Hughes, T., van der Leeuw, S., Rodhe, H., Sörlin, S., Snyder, P. K., Costanza, R., … Foley, J. A. (2009). A safe operating space for humanity. Nature, 461(7263), 472–475. https://doi.org/10.1038/461472a

8. Pörtner, H.‑O., Scholes, R. J., Arneth, A., Barnes, D. K. A., Burrows, M. T., Diamond, S. E., Duarte, C. M., Kiessling, W., Leadley, P., Managi, S., McElwee, P., Midgley, G., Ngo, H. T., Obura, D., Pascual, U., Sankaran, M., Shin, Y. J., & Val, A. L. (2023). Overcoming the coupled climate and biodiversity crises and their societal impacts. Science, 380(6642), eabl4881. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abl4881

9. Sakschewski, B., Caesar, L., Andersen, L., Bechthold, M., Bergfeld, L., Beusen, A., Billing, M., Bodirsky, B. L., Botsyun, S., Dennis, D., Donges, J. F., Dou, X., Eriksson, A., Fetzer, I., Gerten, D., Häyhä, T., Hebden, S., Heckmann, T., Heilemann, A., … Rockström, J. (2025). Planetary health check 2025: A scientific assessment of the state of the planet(144 pp.). Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research. https://doi.org/10.48485/pik.2025.017

10. Steffen, W., Richardson, K., Rockström, J., Cornell, S. E., Fetzer, I., Bennett, E. M., Biggs, R., Carpenter, S. R., de Vries, W., de Wit, C. A., Folke, C., Gerten, D., Heinke, J., Mace, G. M., Persson, L. M., Ramanathan, V., Reyers, B., & Sörlin, S. (2015). Planetary boundaries: Guiding human development on a changing planet. Science, 347(6223), 1259855. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1259855

11. WWF. (2021). Deforestation fronts: Drivers and responses in a changing world. WWF International. https://wwfint.awsassets.panda.org/downloads/deforestation_fronts___drivers_and_responses_in_a_changing_world___full_report_1.pdf

12. Jayathilake, H. M., Prescott, G. W., Carrasco, L. R., Rao, M., & Symes, W. S. (2020). Drivers of deforestation and degradation for 28 tropical conservation landscapes. Ambio, 50(2), 215–230. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-020-01325-9

13. Pan, Y., Birdsey, R. A., Fang, J., Houghton, R., Kauppi, L., Kurz, W. A., Phillips, O. L., Shvidenko, A., Lewis, S. L., Canadell, J. G., Ciais, P., Jackson, R. B., Pacala, S. W., McGuire, A. D., Piao, S., Rautiainen, A., Sitch, S., & Hayes, D. (2011). A large and persistent carbon sink in the world’s forests. Science, 333(6045), 988–993. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1201609

14. Ritchie, H. (2021, February). Deforestation and forest loss. Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/deforestation

15. Ritchie, H. (2021). Drivers of deforestation. Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/drivers-of-deforestation#cutting-down-forests-what-are-the-drivers-of-deforestation

16. Peterson, J. (2024, February 22). How animal agriculture is accelerating global deforestation. Earth.org. https://earth.org/how-animal-agriculture-is-accelerating-global-deforestation/

17. Sze, J. S., Carrasco, L. R., Childs, D., Edwards, D. P. (2022). Reduced deforestation and degradation in Indigenous Lands pan-tropically. Nature Sustainability, 5, 123–130. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-021-00815-2

18. FAO. (2025). Indigenous Peoples and traditional forest-related knowledge. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://www.fao.org/forestry/our-focus/forests-people/indigenous-people-and-traditional-forest-related-knowledge/en

19. FAO. (2020). Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020: Main report. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9825en

    
    

---

Acknowledgement

I acknowledge the use of the generative AI tool Copilot (March 2026). I used it to summarise scientific articles this analysis is based on, to summarise lecture materials, to provide feedback on the correct use of APA 7 referencing, and to check my final work for spelling and grammar. I critically reviewed all AI‑generated output. The final content in this blog is my own.